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¹ Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-7290, USA

Successful operation of brain–computer interfaces (BCI) and brain–machine interfaces (BMI) depends significantly on the degree to which neural activity can be volitionally controlled. This paper reviews evidence for such volitional control in a variety of neural signals, with particular emphasis on the activity of cortical neurons. Some evidence comes from conventional experiments that reveal volitional modulation in neural activity related to behaviours, including real and imagined movements, cognitive imagery and shifts of attention. More direct evidence comes from studies on operant conditioning of neural activity using biofeedback, and from BCI/BMI studies in which neural activity controls cursors or peripheral devices. Limits in the degree of accuracy of control in the latter studies can be attributed to several possible factors. Some of these factors, particularly limited practice time, can be addressed with long-term implanted BCIs. Preliminary observations with implanted circuits implementing recurrent BCIs are summarized.

(Received 20 December 2006; accepted after revision 11 January 2007; first published online 18 January 2007)
Corresponding author E. E. Fetz: Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-7290, USA.  Email: fetz{at}u.washington.edu

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